Difference between teaching Prose and Poetry

Sl. No.	Prose	Poetry
01.	Appeals to head	Appeals to heart
02.	Appeals to the intellect	Affects the whole man, his senses, intellect and emotions.
03.	Prose is more sight than sound	Poetry is more sound than sight
04.	Prose is best words used to express ideas And thoughts	Poetry is best words arranged in best order to express feelings and emotions
05.	Prose is not musical	Poetry is musical with rhyming words
06.	Prose is utility based to learn new vocabulary, structure and grammar	Poetry is meant for pleasure and enjoyment
07.	Prose is taught in paragraphs	Poetry is treated as a whole
08.	Each and every line is important	Understanding the central theme is important
09.	Teaching grammar and structures is emphasized	No reference is made for grammar
10.	Aims at developing the communicative skills and language development	Slowly develops a taste for literature
11.	Compared to walking on the ground. Utility based	Compared to dancing in the air. Feeds imagination
12.	Does no develop aesthetic sense	Develops aesthetic sense

TEACHING OF VOCABULARY

‘Vocabulary is a list of ‘words’. ‘Word’ is a combination of sounds acting upon a unit in a sentence.

Kinds of words

C. C. Fries classifies words in to four

1)     Function words or structural words.

2)     Substitute words

3)     Grammatically distributed words

4)     Content words

1. Function Words or Structural Words

These words have no meaning of their own. But they bring grammatical relationship.

E.g.      a. Auxiliaries              - is, am, are, will, shall, etc.

            b. Prepositions            - in, on, by, for, from, etc.

            c. Conjunctions           - and, but, etc

            d. Interrogatives         - what, when, who, etc

2. Substitute Words

These words are used to substitute.

E.g.      he, she, they, I, we, etc.

3. Grammatically Distributed Words(distributive Words)

These words have affirmative and negative distributions.

E.g.      too, any, etc.

4. Content Words

These words stand for things, actions and qualities. They have meaning….. they are the chief item of vocabulary of a language.

E.g.      Words for things         - book, pencil, pen, etc.

            Words for action         - stand, sit, eat, etc.

            Words for qualities     - honest, beautiful, etc.

II. Types of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is also divided into three as 1. Active vocabulary  2. Passive Vocabulary  3. An Ad hoc Vocabulary.

1. Active Vocabulary

These are words which we commonly and frequently use in our speech and writing. They are words meant to be ‘understood’ and ‘used’. We have complete control and mastery over Active Vocabulary. They are also called as ‘Working Vocabulary’ and ‘Productive Vocabulary’. One man’s Active vocabulary may be another man’s Passive Vocabulary and vice-versa.

2. Passive Vocabulary

These are words to be ‘understood’ but ‘need not be used’ in our speech and writing. When we read novels, magazines, etc, we come across new words for which we try to recognize the meaning vaguely, in the context. Such words are called as Passive Vocabulary. They are also called as ‘Recognition-Vocabulary’ or ‘Receptive Vocabulary.

3. Ad hoc Vocabulary

These words are useful for a given piece of text. They may not be useful for the students out-side the text.

E.g. Medical terms.

III. Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary

1. Nature of Words: For good teaching of vocabulary, the knowledge of the following nature of words is important.

a.      A word can have more than one meaning. It can have following levels of meaning.

i.                 Lexical: meaning given in the dictionary.

ii.               Syntactical: meaning in word order.

iii.             Morphological: meaning in the form.

iv.             Intentional: meaning in pronunciation.

b.     Words also convey meaning in the context.

2. Selection of Vocabulary: For adequate expression of the English language, a secondary level students should have the knowledge of the basic 3000 words. They should be selected on the following principles.

i.       Usefulness of a Word. (The more useful E.g. ‘speak’, ‘write’, etc)

ii.     Frequency of a Word. (Often used words. E.g. Play, work, etc)

iii.   Structural Value of a Word. (E.g. and, but)

iv.   Universality of a Word. (Words used everywhere E.g.        )

v.     Range of Applicability. (Words used in many situations. E.g. means)

vi.   Productivity of a Word. (Produces more words. E.g. manly, manhood)

vii.  Regional Value of Word. (Useful in particular regions. E.g. Sector in Chandiharh)

3. Gradation of Vocabulary: the selected Words should be graded in the following principles:

i.       Simplicity

ii.     Utility

iii.   Structural Value

iv.   Teachability

v.     Learnabilty

4. Methods of Teaching Words:

i.         By showing Actual Objects: To teach words like ‘fan’, ‘window’, etc ctual objects can be shown. This method is very useful for lower classes.

ii.          By performing Actions: To teach like ‘walk’, ‘stand’, ‘sit’, etc actions can be performed.

iii.        By showing Models: to teach words like ‘elephant’, ‘lion’, etc models can be shown.

iv.        By using Charts and Pictures: To creat situations and to teach new words charts and picture can be used. Substitution-table-chart can be used for drilling the usage of words.

v.          By using the Black-Board: Through stick figures and simple diagram the meaning of words can be easily taught.

vi.        By creating Verbal Situation: Meaning of words can be taught by merely creating situations through words. E.g. Verbal Situation to teach the word ‘late’.

The school begins at 9.30 am.

Yesterday John came to school at 10.00 am.

Last week he came to school at 10.15 am.

So John comes late every day.

vii.       By using Mother Tongue: Words which are difficult to understand in English can be taught in mother tongue.

viii.     By Association: New words can be associated with the old ones learnt. It can be done by referring to antonyms, synonyms or the other gender or tense. For example to teach the word ‘good’ we can refer to the antonym ‘bad’.

4. Expansion of Vocabulary: (improving vocabulary)

We always add to our stock of word vocabulary expansion is comparable to human relations. In life, to short with we have ‘friends’ whose nature we know well. ‘Active Vocabulary’ is comparable to such ‘friends’. In the second circle we have ‘acquaintance’ whom we casually meet. ‘Passive Vocabulary’ can be compared to it. Then we come across totally unknown people who are ‘strangers’ who could be compared to the ‘Unknown-Vocabulary’. When we meet ‘strangers’ often, they become our ‘Acquaintances’. In the long run they become our ‘Friends’ too. In the same way, frequent usage of a particular vocabulary changes its nature Expansion of Vocabulary can be done in the following ways:

i.            Special Language-games can be conducted.

a.      Words building: The teacher can write a word on the blackboard. She can ask the students to make word out of the letters (spelling) in the word written within a limited time.

(on the black board)                           (Student’s word list)

E.g. EXCURSION                                                1. Son

                                                                              2. sin

                                                                              3. sun

                                                                              4. rise

                                                                              5. rinse etc.

b.     Spelling-bee: The students should be divided into two groups. A student from the first group should have a word in his mind and tell the first letter of the word. The second group should continue with the second letter of the word. The game should continue with their alternative-part taking. Each group should be careful that the word does not end up with them. The group which ends up with the word will lose its mark. Thus the game continues.

c.      Letter-Expansion: the teacher may write a letter on the blackboard and ask the students to write a list of words beginning with that letter within a fixed time.

e.g. Teacher on the Blackboard                            Student’s list

                                                ‘B’                                                       Bat

                                                                                                            Ball etc.

ii.          Through Homonyms:

Pupils can be asked to give together words which have the same pronunciation but different spelling.

E.g. flowers, flour, floor etc.,    write, right etc.

iii.        Through Word chains:

The teacher can give key-word and ask the pupils to give words connected with them.

E.g. Keyword               Garden.

Connected            Words gardener, plants, flower, fruits, watering, cutting, etc.

iv.        Students can be asked to prepare lists of related words

E.g. write – wrote – written – writer.

        Book – bookish - booking

v.          A special blackboard can be reserved for learning new vocabulary everyday.

vi.        Pupils can be encouraged to maintain a special note-book or diary to write down the new words they learnt everyday.

vii.       Families of words: A base word is given by the teacher. Pupils give thee other forms with prefixes and suffixes.

E.g. Sense       sensible, insensible, sensibly etc.

viii.     Regular ‘Library-period’ can be maintained for extensive reading and pupils can be encouraged to learn new words.

ix.        Regular ‘use of Dictionary’ can be practiced to learn few new word everyday.

x.          Special prizes and marks can be given for expanding vocabulary.

GENERAL ENGLISH

1.     Difference between Achievement and Diagnose Test

Sl. No.	Achievement Test	Diagnostic Test
01.	The field of achievement test is vast.	The field of diagnose test is narrow.
02.	There is no place for guess.	There is very important place for guess.
03.	This test is conducted for extensive study of different subject.	Diagnostic test is used for remedy of difficulties and direction.
04.	Achievement test can be conducted for each student of the class.	It can be conducted for those students who are not able to do well in the class.
05.	It is known by achievement test how much ability a student has in a specific subject.	The objectives of diagnostic test is to find out those causes due to which the student is not able to progress in a specific subject.

2.    Types of Questions

The questions set are of objective, short answer, and essay type.

I.                Objective Type Tests

The answers to these types of tests are to the point scoring can be done without the subjectivity of the examiner. Such tests are reliable, valid and comprehension in nature.

Kinds of objective type test

a.      Recognition type items

b.     Recall type items

a.     Recognition Type Items:

1)     True and false type items

2)     Multiple choice type items

3)     Matching type items

b.     Recall Type Items:

1)     Simple recall type item. The examinee required to recall the response from his past experience.

E.g. The opposite of tall is _________.

2)     Compltion type item. Blanks are to be filled by the student.

E.g. The sun rises in the ____________.

                       

Advantages of Objective Type Tests

1.     It has no scope for subjectivity

2.     Answers to the questions are brief and to the point.

3.     These tests are easy to administer.

4.     They are comprehensive in nature.

5.     Scoring of objective tests is highly reliable.

II.      Short Answer Type

In short answer type, questions are brief and to the point. There is a great deal objectivity in such tests. However, it should be used with other types of oral and written test.

Advantages

1.     It is easy to construct.

2.     Scoring is objective in such test items

3.     The question paper covers the whole syllabus.

III.    Essay Type

These types measure verbal fluency, skill of expression, organization of though and presentation.

Advantage

1.     It provides freedom to the students to express his ideas freely.

2.     Essay type tests have the ability to analyse the problems and arrive at conclusions.

3.     It helps in generalization.

           

LISTENING SKILLS

          Listening skill depends on the two factors, interest and usefulness.

I          Developing Listening skill among pupils

v Language is not only “taught”, it is also “caught”. Speech–habits are mainly formed through “imitation”. So the teacher should be a “Role-model” in her speech with correct language and pronunciation. She should give ample chance for the pupils to listen to English language. So she should always speak in English in the English-class.

v Learners can be helped to listen to model speeches in English, through Radio, Television, Tape-Recorder etc.,

v Story-telling provides interest in listening

v Picture-description improves listening

v Dictation-exercise makes the pupils alert and attentive for listening

v Activities like Role-play, Drama, Quiz, Dialogues, Discussion, Questioning etc. will improve the listening skill

v Giving instructions, using minimal-pairs and organizing language games will improve listening

II         Sub skills of Listening

Listening for Perception

            Listening for perception is “Extensive listening” or “Non-detailed listening”. Eg. Listening to some general talk. Here we just follow the description or gist of the matter or the outline of the matter.

Listening for Comprehension

            Listening for Comprehension is “Intensive listening” or “Detailed listening”. Eg. Classroom listening where the pupils intensively listen to the complete lesson in detail.

III       Three Phases of Listening

                        There are three phases in listening namely initial phase, middle phase and final phase.

ü  The initial phase is the “Childhood level, where the child listens to various sounds and differentiates them. The child listens to simple instructions, minimal pairs and musical sounds.

ü  The middle phase is the “boyhood-level”. Here the boy is able to listen to continuous speech. He understands conversations and interacts. Thus he develops intent-listening and critical-listening.

ü  The final phase is the “adult level”. Here the person listens to rapid-speeches and running commentaries. He develops the skill of intensive and extensive listening. He even analyses the mood of the speaker.

IV        Listening Activities

            For beginner’s simple ear-training exercises, dictation of minimal- pairs matching exercises and simple instructions for actions can be given. For high school level students sentence completion exercise, blank-filling, speech models and recorded conversations can be given. The following activities can also be given.

·       Dictation

It is a device to test the spelling for beginners. At higher level, dictation of passages is done. The following are the advantages of dictation:-

a)     Affords mental-discipline and concentration in the subject

b)     Improves pronunciation, stress and intonation

c)     Improves the spelling

d)     Improves punctuation

e)     Helps to gain speed in writing

f)      Helps to gain accuracy and beauty in writing

g)     Keeps the pupil alert and attentive for listening

h)     Improves comprehension-power by careful listening

·       Following Route

If a person needs the route to locate a place, he has to listen intensively to the speaker and comprehend. Otherwise he will miss the route and be in confusion. So this exercise makes one keen in listening.

·       Listening to Telephone Call

This is another activity for intensive listening unless we are attentive to the speaker, we may miss the information. Listening to telephone-calls develops the power of concentration as well as the speaking ability. There are some conventional formulae used in telephone- speeches. Listening to such formulae improves his language expression.

·       Listening to Commentaries

Nowadays listening to commentaries (cricket commentaries, celebration of national festivals etc.,) is a great source of language development. The listeners keenly listen to the commentaries, word by word with intensive listening and with deep interest. As they listen, they pick up the language unconsciously. The teacher can record such interesting commentaries for the learners and she can play them in the class. After listening, she can ask questions to the pupils in the listening exercise. Such practices will improve the listening power of the pupils.

·       Listening to Instructions

This is the usual practice followed in the classrooms and school assembly. Unless the pupils listen to the instructions with full concentration, they may not be able to obey the instruction. So, automatically they are being compelled to listen to instructions. Such practices become a habit for them. They increase the power of concentration and help the pupils to pick up the language.

·       Jigsaw Listening

This makes the pupils listen to the speaker attentively with full concentration. This type of listening takes place when there is extempore speech or lecture going on. The speaker may jump from one idea to another. Unless there is full concentration on the part of the listener, he may not be able to comprehend with coherence. So, it is a good practice to develop the listening skill.

Listening Comprehension

Introduction

Listening is not hearing. It is an active process. It has three basic stages: (i) hearing (ii) processing and (iii) evaluating. Hearing is just catching what the speaker is saying. At the second stage processing takes place. We process what we have heard. The linguistic knowledge refers to the knowledge of language and non-linguistic knowledge refers to all kinds of knowledge acquired through experience and learning. With the help of this background knowledge we understand what we hear. Next is we try to evaluate the fact. We try to find a logical reason to accept the fact.

Types of Listening

            Depending on whether we are listening to someone with a purpose or not, listening can be classified into two types: Casual Listening and Focused Listening. Casual listening refers to listening without any particular purpose. In this kind of listening, we do not concentrate on what we are listening. In focused listening, the listener has a purpose. The purpose of listening to a lecture in a classroom is to understand what the professor is saying. In “focused listening” a person listens to the speaker attentively and actively.

Factors Affecting Listening Comprehension

Linguistic Factors

            If a listener’s language proficiency is low, he will have problems in listening. Specifically, one’s vocabulary will affect listening. Some words have more than one sense depending on the context. Some listeners may not seek clarifications on the meaning of a word. Certain words are used technically and they have special meanings in the subject concerned.

Physical Factors

            The environment in which the communication is taking place also affects listening. Public places are usually noisy. At times there are technological disturbances affecting listening comprehension. Even health affects listening.

Psychological Factors

• Lack of Interest: This lack of interest develops because of very strict teacher or monotonous  and not clear lecture.
• Negative Attitudes and Feelings: If we have a negative attitude towards the speaker we try not to understand him. Our feelings about a person influence listening. If we dislike a person, we won’t pay attention to what he says. On the other hand if we like the speaker,  we give sensible meaning to his nonsense talk
• Impatience: People who think too much of themselves and are overconfident usually do not have patience. They think that they know much more than the speaker and disturb the session
• Thinking speed: We think three times faster than we speak. Speaker cannot speak as fast as we understand. We can involve ourselves in interesting acts relating to lecture
• Strong Beliefs: Some people have strong beliefs and they are very rigid. It is a hindrance for active listening.
• Preoccupation: If the mind is preoccupied with some other matter or thing, then there will not occur any listening.

Characteristics of a Good Listener

• Proficient
• Knowledgeable
• Active
• Cool
• Ability to Overcome the Physical Barriers

Learning to Listen

            Here are few tips to listen effectively

     We should develop positive attitude

     We should sit in a place where we can easily see and hear the speaker

     If there is any material available with regard to the lecture, we should read it before attending

     We should always be observing what our mind is doing

     We should take notes

     We should ask for clarifications

     We should focus on the content rather than on the presentation mode

     We should learn to identify the main ideas and separate them from supporting ideas

     We should mentally summarize the main ideas, anticipate the speaker

     We should empathize with the speaker

     We should not jump to conclusions/assumptions fast.

READING SKILL

Introduction

Reading involves understanding what is represented in the form of words and sentences, which is a more complex activity. Learning to read is to perceive the letters/words and to say aloud what is perceived. Reading is an active process. A reader is actively involved in interaction with the text. When we read a text we bring with us some knowledge related to the text. Technically this knowledge is called “schemata”. Using the schemata, we interpret the words and sentences and give meaning to the text. There is a constant interaction between the reader and the text in comprehending a text.

Reading is a process involving a group of skills. Some of the skills, which are involved in reading are as follows:

(i)              recognizing the letters of a language

(ii)            identifying the meanings of words

(iii)          deducing the meaning of unfamiliar words

(iv)           understanding the relations among the constituents of a sentence

(v)             understanding the relations between sentences in the text

(vi)           comprehending the overtly stated information

(vii)         inferring the information which is not overtly stated

(viii)       getting a general idea of the text

(ix)           locating specific information in a text

(x)             interpreting the text from outside

(xi)           separating the main ideas from supporting statements

Reading as a process has two activities in it: reading aloud and reading for meaning (silent reading). The purpose of reading aloud is to understand and convey the message to someone else by reading it aloud. Silent reading is a activity that involves looking at words and sentences in a text and understanding the message that is conveyed by the text with the help of background knowledge.

Types of Reading Texts

Some of the reading texts are

-        letters, telegrams, emails, notes

-        articles, special features, classified ads, weather forecast, reports

-        advertisements, brochures, catalogues, timetables, telephone directories, dictionaries

-        essays, specialized articles, reviews, reports, memoranda, business letters

-        poems, songs, rhymes

-        short stories, novels, tales, biographies, diaries, jokes

-        instructions, rules and regulations, price lists, tickets, application forms

-        greeting cards, invitations, notices

Purpose of Reading

            We usually do not read anything just for the sake of reading. Some of us read mantra without understanding it. We read them only because of our beliefs. We are driven by a desire to read something for either pleasure or extracting information. Every reading has a purpose behind it and the purpose of reading determines the style and the speed of reading.

Types of Reading

            The purpose decides the way of reading. Generally reading is divided into four types based on the way it is done namely (i) skimming (ii) scanning (iii) extensive reading (iv) intensive reading.

Skimming

            Skimming is an activity in which the reader’s eyes run over a text quickly to get a general idea or gist of it. Eg., When we go to library, we skim through the book and try to find out if the book is worth borrowing or not.

Scanning

            Scanning refers to reading for specific information. We scan a book or a text in order to find out a particular piece of information. Eg., While searching for the time of departure of a particular train, we do not read the timetable entirely. We just run our eyes through the timetable quickly till we locate the time of departure of the particular train.

Extensive Reading

            Extensive reading refers to reading longer texts like novels and short stories, which take longer periods. This is done for pleasure. In extensive reading, a reader does not read everything. He may skip certain pages and complete the reading because the reader is interested in having a global idea.

Intensive Reading

            When we read our textbooks, research articles or reports, we do not read them for pleasure. We read them carefully and try to understand every detail. This kind of reading is called “intensive reading”. This involves extracting specific information.

Reading speed

            Slow reading or fast reading depends on what kind of text we are reading and for what purpose. In other words, we need to vary the speed of reading depending on the purpose for which we are reading a text.

Characteristics of a Good Reader

·       A good reader knows the purpose of reading.

·       A good reader guesses the meanings of new words. He makes use of the grammatical, logical, and general knowledge to discover the meanings of unfamiliar words.

·       He attempts to understand what the writer’s actual intention in using a particular construction.

·       He guesses what is going to come in the rest of paragraphs and decides whether to read them or not

·       A good reader varies his speed of reading depending on the purpose of reading.

·       He has an average speed of reading (250-500 words per minute) and reads fast at the rate of about 800 words per minute while skimming or scanning a text.

·       A good reader changes his style of reading according to the purpose.

·       A good reader not only understands the text but goes beyond the text.

·       Thinks critically what is given in a text.

Faulty habits to be avoided while reading

·       Points at the words with a finger or a pencil or some other object

·       Moving the head from one side to another instead of using eye movement

·       “Mouthing” the words audibly using lip movements

·       Pronouncing the words mentally ( not audible)

·        Perceiving only one word at a time. The student cannot perceive a group of words both visually and mentally per eye-fixation

·       Has a backward eye movement along a line.

Learning to Read

            We can divide the process of reading a text into three stages: Pre-reading, While-reading and Post-reading stages. Pre-reading stage is the stage before reading the text. The reader may ask himself some questions like what do I know about the author and the subject of the text? Why am I reading this text? What knowledge do I gain when I finish reading this text?. Some of the questions, which may be asked at the while-reading stage, are:  What are the main points of this paragraph? How is the main point supported? What are the arguments used? Some of the questions at the post-reading stage are: What does the author mean by…? What do I feel about this? If the facts are so, how about this?

WRITING SKILL

Introduction

Writing is the most common way of communicating with others. It is a complex activity. It involves many sub-skills like writing legibly, spelling correctly, using good expressions, constructive grammatical sentences and putting them together, developing ideas into paragraphs, arranging the arguments logically and using different formats. A good writer has the mastery of all these skills.

Paragraphing

Paragraph is the smallest unit of writing. Each paragraph expresses an idea and hence it is the smallest unit of writing. If the passage is very long it may put the reader off. Paragraphs are needed to put each bit of information separate, which makes the passage easy to comprehend. The bit of information may be an idea, a feeling, a problem and so on.

A well-organized Paragraph

A paragraph is not just a randomly selected sentences put together. Each sentence in the paragraph depends on the other sentences. All the sentences in the paragraph are like members in a family and are related to each other both structurally and semantically.

Cohesion

The relationship among the sentences in a paragraph is shown by linking with cohesive devices and the process of linking is called cohesion. These devices connect one sentence with the other in the paragraph. They make the paragraph economic, stable and clear. Some of the cohesive devices are connectives, pronouns and the definite article.

Connectives

Connectives are explicit markers connecting one sentence with the other. They can be divided into four classes depending on their function. Viz., conjunctions, disjunctions, contrajunctions and subordinators.

Conjunctions are those words that connect two or more words, phrases or sentences with the meaning of addition. Eg., while, however, too, also, in addition to, with reference to and besides.

Disjunctions are also explicit markers that connect sentences but they connect two or more alternatives. Eg., whether…or, either…or, or and neither…nor.

Contrajunctions are a class of words that include the words, which refer to concession, comparison, contrast and so on. Eg. Yet, but, however, in contrast, on the other hand and nevertheless.

Subordinators are the words that are used to introduce dependent clauses in complex sentences. A subordinator is in the initial position of a dependent clause. Some of the subordinators used in English are that, because, as, since and when.

Pronouns and the Definite Article

Pronouns and definite article also act as connectives. Consider the following sentence.

I met Mr. Anand, the magician yesterday. He is a very interesting person.

The pronoun he in the second sentence means Mr.Anand. Instead of repeating the name, a pronoun is used. This phenomenon is called coreference. The name here Mr. Anand is called the “antecedent” of the pronoun he in this example. The pronoun links the second sentence with the first sentence. The demonstrative pronoun this refers to the sentence which comes afterwards. Some other reference markers are the definite article “the”, and a few set phrases like “the following”, “the former”, “as follows”, and “the latter” and so on.

Coherence

The sentences in a paragraph should also be connected through the underlying content. All the sentences in a paragraph should deal with a single idea. The very first sentence projects the idea. Other sentences support the idea by   it. The sentence, which puts forth the idea, is called the topic sentence. Each sentence should be connected with the previous one logically.  All the sentences in each of this paragraph have a common purpose. They are all connected each other not only by cohesive devices but also through the underlying content. This is technically called “coherence”. Coherence shows logical relations, organization of events, objects and situations and continuity in human experience. It deals with the basic relations such as cause-effect, problem-solution and temporal sequence of events.

The process of writing a paragraph

Writing a paragraph basically involves three stages. First we have to generate ideas regarding the topic we intend to write on. There are two ways of generating ideas: brainstorming and clustering. In brainstorming we need to put down all the related ideas, which come to our mind. There is no order of writing of the ideas on the paper. In clustering, we should take a piece of paper and write the topic of the passage at the center. Then we should put the related subtopics around the central topic in circles. In both the cases no need to write the ideas in full sentences. At the second stage, put all the ideas into words, order them logically and make a draft of the passage. Finally we need to revise the draft and see if the passage expresses the same idea as we wanted to express. At this stage we should eliminate all the grammatical errors and replace words if they are not appropriate to the context and add or delete an idea to support the topic sentence.

Report Writing

            Reports are basically informative. One can prepare report on events, incidents, science experiments, or investigation of different kinds, a press conference or an official meeting of VIPs. The primary purpose of a report is to give information to an individual or an organization about work that was assigned.

Characteristics and Purpose of Report writing

            A report can be oral or written that has structural format. It presents an analysis of facts after careful investigation and presents findings on the basis of the analysis. It is precise and concise written in an impersonal style. The main purpose of report writing is to make a record of events, to assess a situation/event, to persuade someone about the need for a certain action, to make a recommendation and to evaluate the progress of a project. The different reports are informative report (eg., a report on floods),  a human interests report (an individual),  a scientific report (experiment), a sports report ( foot ball match), report on press conference (on conversation),  a report on civic or other conditions ( on matters of interest).

Important Features of a report

Ø  A report imparts information or gives facts

Ø  A report is most often objective unless one is required to express one’s views

Ø  A report is written in the past tense if it talks of events in the past

Ø  The only time when the tense changes is when the report is on present conditions

Ø  A report is brief and it avoids unnecessary details.

CONVERSATION – CONVERSATION WRITING

                    “Conversation” is a communication between multiple people. It is a social skill. For successful conversation, the partners should contribute in a balanced way. The topic of the conversation should be familiar to the partners.

DIALOGUE

            A “Dialogue” is a talk between two people. The expressions used in a dialogue should be easy and natural. It should not be bookish. Friendly conversational style should be used which needs little dramatic power in the form of questions and answers. The conversation should be spontaneous. It should be in line with the imaginary character. It should be brisk and rapid. Careful prior-planning should be done for a proper outline. Otherwise it will go pointless. Interjections like “How nice! Well done! Can be used. But it should not overdone. The language used can be colloquial but “slana” or “ungrammatical form” should be avoided. There should be interesting beginning and definite conclusion. The dialogue should be natural, interesting and in a realistic manner.

IDIOMS

            “Idioms” are peculiar expressions in a language. They add beauty and make the expressions interesting and stylish.

Examples:

1.     Disobedient children turn a deaf ear (disregard) to their parent’s advice

2.     The prodigal son was received with open arms (with a warm welcome)

3.     The cost of living is so high that the poor find it difficult to make both ends meet. (to live within the income)

4.     The champions brought laurels to the institutions (won glory)

5.     The dishonest man wants to earn his living by hook or by crook (by fair or unfair means)

6.     I have it at my finger’s ends (know it thoroughly)

7.     He made up his mind (decided) to work hard

8.     His secret-plan was brought to light (disclosed)

9.     He is hand and glove (on intimacy) with his cousin

10.  He strained every nerve (used utmost effort) to get the first rank

11.  He burnt his fingers (got into trouble) by interfering in his neighbors’ affairs

12.  We shall fight tooth and nail (with all power) for our rights

13.  He knows the ins and outs of the problem (details)

14.  The new hostler felt as a fish out of water (in a strange situation)

15.  You should take into account (consider) his past service

16.  Beware of black sheep (bad character scoundrels)

17.  At the sight of the police man, the thief took to his heels (ran away)

18.  As usual he is blowing his own trumpet (praising himself)

19.  The thief was caught red-handed (in the very act of theft)

20.  He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth (born in wealth and luxury)

21.  Just now, my hands are full (I’m very busy)

22.  All his schemes ended in smoke (came to nothing)

23.  Give it in black and white (in writing)

24.  His father left no stone unturned (used all the possible methods) to make his son a great man

25.  His father came to save him in the nick of time (just at the right moment)

26.  His friend stood by him through thick and thin (in joy and sorrow)

Application for jobs

            Curriculum vitae is a presentation in writing, giving one’s personal details, academic background, work experience if any, achievements and other strengths. The aim of a good resume is to introduce yourself impressively to someone who might give you a job or help you further your career prospects.

General Appearance of a resume

·       Use fonts that are simple and easy to read

·       Avoid italicized versions of regular fonts or those that resemble handwriting

·       Use bond paper with water-mark in solid conservative colour like ivory white or light grey

·       Avoid dark colour or printed paper

·       Use the same kind of paper for both your resume and cover letter.

How to write a resume:-

Current contact information, including full name, phone number mailing address and email address should be written. Educational background- Colleges studied with the course and year of completion, name of degree or certificates earned along with percentage and class. A covering letter with the following details namely How the company’s personality and mission align with your own values, how your background makes you a valuable asset thee company, what specifically interests you about this position should be enclosed.

Letter writing

            Letters are one of the most used communication instrument in everyday life. Letters are used for both personal communication and official communication. Letter writing is an activity, which demands care and caution. A letter not only communicates what you want to but also conveys to the reader your image, attitude, and beliefs. A well written letter can get whatever response you expect from the reader. But a letter with spelling errors, wrong choice of words, grammatical mistakes, and incomplete information can hurt the reader.

Notices and Announcements

            Notices and Announcements are short messages printed or written in a special manner and put up a notice board or sent to different people. The main purpose of a notice or an announcement is to inform people about something like declaring a holiday, the change of address and the opening of new branch. A notice should mention the date, the purpose and the venue clearly. Usually the notices are written in the third person or the passive voice is used. A notice cannot be too long. The name/ designation of issuing authority need to be mentioned at the bottom and it should be signed by the person who is issuing the notice. An announcement since it is general in nature. General announcements are written for larger groups in organizations and larger institutions. The announcement will have the name of the organisation/institution at the top. The designation of the person is mentioned at the bottom. The date of the issue of the notice/ announcement is very important.

Invitations

            A written invitation may be a letter (either on a letterhead or a plain sheet of paper) or a printed card. Invitation for a formal occasion like the inaugural of a seminar/conference, reception etc., can be either in the form of a printed or engraved card or a letter on letterhead. A formal invitation has three paragraphs in the body of the letter. The first paragraph is the introduction, the second paragraph is the development of the idea and the third paragraph is the conclusion. It addresses the person as “Dear…” so the letter has got the right complimentary close, “yours sincerely”.

            In the formal letter of acceptance, the reference and acceptance are stated in the first sentence of the letter. The letter is expanded in the second and third paragraphs. Finally there is a conclusion of the letter.

Public Speaking

            Public speaking skills are valuable both in personal life and career. “Public speaking is the art of diluting a two minute idea with a two-hour vocabulary”-John-F.Kennedy. “They may forget what you said, but they will never forget how you made them feel” – Carl.W. Buechner.

Suggestions for a public speaking

§  Pay attention of your stage presence when you are giving speech

§  Good public speakers appear confident, friendly and enthusiastic

§  Confidence comes from the choosing  of topic and researching well

§  Your voice is the most important tool to employ as a public speaker

§  Vary the pitch and volume of speech

§  Voice is the essential thing to help the audience to understand your main point

§  Use of appropriate body language.

Public speaking Techniques

            Successful public speaking involves more than just choosing the right words. It involves establishing a rapport relationship with the audience in many different ways like overcoming from the fear. Public speaking is a matter of practice and confidence. “There are three things to aim at, first, to get into your subject, then to get your subject into yourself, and lastly to get your subject into the heart of your audience” – Alexander Gregg.

Importance of Public Speaking

            Public speaking is one of the most under rated skills learned in school, yet is one of the most valuable. The way of communication says lot about a person and can influence to others opinions about the speaker. In every profession communication in some way is used. Good communication skills will help greatly and improve changes against a harsh-job market. The primary goal of public speaking is to show students how to achieve clarity and confidence during the speeches one must give in classes, in career settings and in their communities.

GRAMMATICAL EXPRESSIONS

Tenses – Modals – Phrasal Verbs – Idioms and Phrases – Determiners – Various Concepts and expressions in language.

TENSES

·       The Tense of a verb shows the time of an action or an event.

(Eg.)    a)   I write this letter. (The verb ‘write’ refers to Present Time)

b)     I wrote the letter. (The verb ‘wrote’ refers to the Past Time)

c)     I shall write another letter. (The verb ‘shall write’ refers to Future Time)

·       Tense also shows the state of an action or event.

(Eg.)    a)   I am doing my work. (The action or event is continuing.)

b)     I have done my work. (The action or event is finished.)

MODALS

Auxiliaries

‘Be’ verbs like ‘is’, ‘am’, ‘are’ etc and ‘have and ‘do’ are called as ‘Auxiliaries’ or ‘Helping-Verbs’. They make tenses, passive forms, questions and negatives.

Modals

The verbs – can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must and ought are called as ‘Modals’. They are used before ordinary verbs and express meanings such as permission, possibility, certainty and necessity. Sometimes ‘need’ and ‘dare’ are also used as modal verbs. Modals are often used as ‘modal-auxiliaries’.

Expressions Using Modals

1.     Ability or Capacity

‘Can’ usually expresses ‘ability’.

E.g.      I can do this work.

2.     Permission

‘Can’ and ‘may’ are used to express ‘permission’.

E.g.      You can go.

You may go.

3.     Possibility/Impossibility

‘May’, ‘might’ and ‘can’ are used to denote possibility. Negative forms show impossibilities.

E.g.      a) It may rain today. (Possibility)

b) It may not rain today. (Impossibility)

c) It can be true.

d) It cannot be true.

4.     Obligation

‘Must’, ‘should’, ‘ought to’ can be used to express obligation.

E.g.      a) You must be here by 9.30 AM.

            b) You ought to be here by 10 PM.

            c) You should be here by 9 AM.

5.     Probability

‘Would’ and ‘should’ can be used to express probability.

E.g.      a) That would be his son.

            b) He should be there by now.

6.     Necessity

‘Must’, ‘should’ and ‘ought’ can be used to express necessity.

E.g.      a) There should be a break now.

            b) There must be an alternative plan to overcome the difficulty.

            c)  She ought to be here for help.

7.     Concession

‘May’ and ‘might’ can be used to express concession.

E.g.      a) May I take leave now.

            b) You might free uniforms.

8.     Supposition

‘Will’, and ‘must’ can be used to express supposition.

E.g.      a) He will be at Chennai now.

            b) He must be a fool.

9.     Instructions

‘Will’ and ‘can’ are used to give instructions.

E.g.      a) Will you get me a cup of coffee?

b) Can you a ticket for me?

10.  Prohibitions

‘Must’ can be used to express prohibitions.

E.g.      a) You must not smoke in public places.

Other Expressions

1.     Comparison

We can use ‘similarly’ and ‘likewise’ to express comparisons.

E.g.      a) Raju got his degree. Similarly Balu also got his degree.

            b) Rani passed in first class. Likewise Prema also passed in first class.

            c) Sekar is as tall as Sundar. (Equal Comparison)

‘Then’ is used when we compare two things.

E.g.      d) Prema is taller than Mala.

2.     Contrast

‘Contrast’ is expressed by using ‘but’, ‘however’, ‘on the other hand’ etc.

E.g.      a) He is poor but he is honest.

            b) Raju is a poor man. On the other hand his brother is very rich.

3.     Conditions (Conditional Clauses)

Type 1:- The Open Condition

Conditions of this type tell us that something will happen if a certain condition is fulfilled. The condition may or may not be fulfilled.

E.g.      a) If you work hard, you will succeed.

            b) If I find the pen, I will give it to you.

Type 2:- Improbable or Imaginary Condition

Conditionals of this type are purely imaginary which we don’t expect to happen.

E.g.      a) If you studied hard, you would get a first class.

            b) If I were you, I would not do.

Type 3:- Unfulfilled Condition

Here, it says that something did not happen because a certain condition was not fulfilled.

E.g.      a) If you had studied hard, you would have got a first class.

            b) If I had seen him, I would have got the help.

4.     Willingness

The modals ‘will’ and ‘would’ can be used.

E.g.      a) Prem will help you.

            b) Raju would do anything for his friends.

5.     Wish

Words ‘wish’ and ‘want’ are used.

E.g.      a) He wishes to introduce himself.

            b) Prem wants him to his office.

6.     Preference

Use prefer

E.g.      a) He prefers to do the same work.

Various Concepts and Expressions in English

(Use of Conventional Formula)

Conventional formulae are words, phrase or sentences that are used to express certain concepts. They are habitual and followed conventionally to express greetings, apology, invitation, refusal, acceptance and thanking.

1. Greetings: (Special expression of wishes)

Good-morning, Good-day, Good-afternoon, Good-night, Good-bye!, Best wishes!, Congratulations!, Have a nice-day!, Happy Birthday!, Wish you a happy married life! Etc.

2. Apology: (expression of regret on being impolite or doing something wrong)

I am sorry!, I’m extremely sorry!, I beg your pardon!, Excuse me!, I apologise for…, I regret that…, etc.

3. Invitation: (It is a request to come and do something)

-You are most welcome!

- Please attend and grace the function. - Will you have lunch with us.

Invitation can be accepted by saying ‘Thank you very much!’, ‘that’s kind of you!’, ‘very nice of you’

4. Refusals:

Refusals can be made as follows:

-‘Well, that’s kind of you, but I am not for.’

- ‘Sorry, I can’t’

- ‘No, sorry, I’m helpless’ etc.

5. Accepting Invitation:

- ‘Thank you very much.’, that’s kind of you.’

- ‘Yes’ with pleasure.’

- ‘Yes, certainly.’

- ‘Oh! Sure!’

Accepting Ideas:

-‘Yes, that’s right.’

- ‘Definitely, I think so.’

- ‘Probably’, ‘ I guess so.’, ‘Yes, perhaps.’, ‘That’s OK.’, ‘You’re welcome.’ Etc

6. Thanking: (It is an expression of gratitude for something)

-‘Thank you!’, Thank you very much’, ‘Thanks a lot’, ‘It’s very kind of you’, ‘I really appreciate it.’

-‘To answer someone who thanks, the following can be used:

‘You are welcome!’, ‘It’s a pleasure.’, ‘That’s all right’, ‘Not at all.’ Etc.

Phrasal Verb

Phrasal Verb is a verb with an adverbial particle. There are about 30 adverbial particles which combine with Verbs to form Phrasal Verbs.

Examples: make out, differ from, put on, put out, put into, put away, go on, go through, go about, go away, etc.

Some phrasal Verbs have a literal, direct meaning. They retain the meaning of the verb and the adverbial particle.

E.g. go away, come in.

Some Phrasal Verbs do not have a direct meaning. They take a different meaning.

E.g. carry on (continue), put off (postpone)

Idioms

Idioms are peculiar expressions in language. They make the language rich and beautiful in expression.

E.g.      a) He turned a deaf ear to (disregarded) my advice.

            b) I have made up my mind (determine) to study well.

Determiners

Phrase is a group of words that comes as a part of a sentence. A Noun is a naming word. It is the name of a person, place or thing. The group of words that does the work of a Noun is a Noun Phrase.

E.g.  Raju ate some of the sweets.

Some of the sweets – Noun Phrase

Sweets – Noun Head word.

The Noun Phrase has a Noun. It is called the ‘Head word’. Here ‘sweet’ is the Head word. The words that come befor the Head-word such as articles (a’ an’ the), the possessives (my, your, his, their etc) or demonstratives (this, that, these, those) are called as ‘Determiners’. These ‘Determiners’ may also be preceded by the ‘pre-determiners’ like some of, any, one of etc.

            E.g. Raju ate some of the sweets.

                        Some of the sweets – Noun Phrase

                        Some of – Pre-determiner

                        The – Determiner

                        Sweets – Noun

Substitution Method

Meaning

Substitution Method is a technique devised to overcome the defects of direct method, which are: stress on oral work, absence of the use of mother tongue and inductive method of teaching grammar. H.E. Palmer adopted it and formulated it as a method. He defined substitution as “a process by which any model sentence may be multiplied indefinitely by substituting for any of its word or word groups, others of the same grammatical family and within certain semantic limits.”

i)                 Word or a phrase or an idiom cannot be taught in isolation, as it is not  supporting linguistics

ii)               The unit of teaching is sentence.

iii)             A model sentence is framed in this method

iv)              The words of model sentences can be substituted except the word want to teach. It is called ‘lead’ word or ‘content’ word.

v)               The substituting word should belong to the same grammatical family of the model sentence

vi)              Substitution is to followed step by step

vii)            Table should be prepared, illustrating the use of  words or group of words showing the basis of construction of   the model sentence an substitution of the term

viii)          Mother-tongue should be used though word-to-word translation should be avoided

ix)              Model sentence should be thoroughly mastered.

Procedure

1.      The teacher should select an easy sentence as a model sentence

2.      Teacher should repeat the model sentence two-three times.

3.      He should be audible to the whole class.

4.      Students should be asked to repeat it individually and then collectively

5.      Error of pronunciation, articulation, accent , intonation etc  should be corrected  immediately

6.      The   model sentence should be written on the blackboard

7.      The meaning of the sentence is explained with the help of pictures, objects, charts and gestures.

8.      The teachers  may use the mother tongue when necessary

9.      He should ask the students to give similar words for one item

10.   The teacher should make the meanings of substituted words clear by using material aids.

11.   After the substitution of one word of the sentence is complete the other words is substituted

12.   All the sentences constructed should be used for conversation

13.   The sentences should be written in the form of substitution table

14.   Lastly the teacher should ask the students to copy the substitution table in their exercise copies.

Types of substitution

1.      Simple Substitution: In this type of substitution variables cannot be interchanged.

New Delhi Islamabad Kathmandu Thimpu	is the capital of	India Pakistan Nepal Bhutan
Dollar Pounds Rupee Franc	is the currency of	U.S.A U.K India France

2.      Compound Substitution:  In this type of substitution, it is possible to interchange variables

The Pen The book The pencil The toy

is on

the table the bed the shelf the cupboard

3. Grammatical Substitution: In grammatical substitution, grammar is taught by using substitution table         

I He She We You They

is am are

Playing

Merits:

Ø  It is a natural way of learning as mother tongue is frequently used

Ø  It is an interesting method as both the teacher and the students actively participate

Ø  It improves creative thinking in the students

Ø  It helps in developing the skill of listening, reading and writing.

Ø  It helps in acquiring command over phrases and idioms

Ø  It encourage contextual learning

Ø  Linguistic material are arranged in a systematic way in the substitution tables

Ø  The learner learns a large number of sentences without memorizing the grammatical rules.

Ø  It ensures formation of speech habits. Students learn correct pronunciation, articulation, intonation and fluency by oral drill

Demerits:

Ø  Though it teaches grammar, we cannot depend on this method entirely to teach grammatical rules.

Ø  Only a number of isolated sentences can be taught by this method

Ø  This method cannot be used to teach prose, poetry and composition

Ø  This method lays more emphasis on written work than oral drills

Ø  Formation of linguistic habits is possible only after a long practice

Ø  The teacher should be trained, innovative and imaginative to teach by this method. Therefore, only specialized teachers can handle this technique.

Ø  This method is time consuming as it takes great deal of time to form linguistic habits.

LINGUISTIC BASIC PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING ENGLISH

A good teacher of the subject teaches well and even then he is not satisfied with it. He is always after evolving new ways of teaching English. He remains in search of some innovations and new principles of teaching in order to make his teaching more fruitful. Both aims and principles make the teaching-learning programme effective.

·       Imitation

Learning of any language on based on the principle of imitation. In fact imitation is natural to man. From childhood, language is best learnt through imitation, it is very true in the case of small children. Some-times even the wrong habits of the teacher are carried on by the small children. If a teacher has poor pronunciation his students at the early stages of learning the pick up the same poor standard of pronunciation from him. The bad handwriting of the teacher may also have adverse effect on the learners. So the teacher who is given the charge of teaching the small children must be good through and through.

·       Practice and drill

Learning of a language is a habit formation process. Habits are formed through repetition. Continuous practice and drill work are needed for it. All aspects of language learning i.e., listening, speaking, reading and writing can be acquired after a lot of practice.  Practice makes man perfect. In the learning of a language, the students require a lot of practice and drill work. Languagelearning or teaching is not a knowledge subject; it is rather a skill subject like swimming, dancing, painting etc. So the learner will have to repeat and revise things in order to have mastery over the language.

·       Oral Approach

Language is more connected with ears and tongue than with eyes. So in the teaching of English, oral work should be given top most priority. If a student is good at spoken language, he will automatically be good in reading and writing of the language. Moreover, whatever is learnt orally is remembered better. Due emphasis should be laid on this aspect of the language.

·       Selection and Gradation

In the teaching of a language, selection and gradation of language items are very important. Selection may be done by the teacher, in respect of grammatical items, vocabulary and structures. Selection and gradation should be based on frequency, teachability, range of applicability, usefulness etc.

(a) Selection

The selection of language items should be based on the following principles:

Ø  Frequency of language items-its occurrence.

Ø  Range of applicability i.e., in how many contexts it is applicable.

Ø  Coverage- a word conveying a number of meanings e.g., meals stand for dinner breakfast etc.

Ø  Availability- the items which can be conveniently taught e.g., actual objects available in the class room like table, chair, chalk etc.

Ø  Teachability- items which are easy from teaching point of view.

Ø  Learn ability- items which are easy for the students to learn should be taken up first.

(b) Gradation

Gradation means putting the language items in order of presentation. Thus simple items having more utility and better teachability will be taken care of. Gradation involves grouping and sequence.

                          I.          Grouping

Group according to the sound e.g. pat, bat, cat, sat etc. this is called phonetic grouping.

Grouping according to words used in the same situation e.g words connected with post office, post master, postman. It is also called lexical grouping.

Patterns of sentences which are similar should be taught together e.g., that is ; my book, your book etc. called grammatical grouping should be taught together.

Semantic grouping-words that convey similar meaning are grouped together e.g., Shelter, hut, house, tent etc.

Structural grouping- how the selected items fit with each other sounds into words, word into phrases, phrases into sentences and sentences into contexts.

                        II.          Sequence

What comes after what?

Lexical sequence- which words follows which e.g., sit, stand, come, go.

Grammatical Sequence- means which structure follows which.

Example: I am throwing a ball.

I am throwing a ball to you.

Semantic sequence- Every word has a number of meanings. They are put in order and are taught at different occasions, e.g., the word there

The pen is there (place)

There are many pens (introduction)

·       Motivation

Motivation is of great importance in the leaching learning of foreign language. Language is learnt quickly if the students are made interested in it. that is why, the language teacher makes use of different types of aids in his class. He applies interesting methods like activity method, playway method etc. The general poor standard of students in English is due to the lack of interest. Many students learn English half heartedly. The teacher who cannot make his teaching interesting should better quite the teaching profession.

·       Natural Way of Teaching- learning.

Every language should be taught in the natural way. Thus listening and speaking should precede reading and writing. The teacher should lay more emphasis on the first two aspects i.e., listening and speaking. Then the learners will automatically be good at reading and writing of the language.

·       Language in Context and Situation.

The language is taught so that the learners are able to make use of it, in their real life situations. The fundamental language items are vocabulary, structures and grammar. Vocabulary items should be taught with the help of structures.  New structures should be taught with the help of old vocabulary already known.

·       Multiple Line of Approach.

In the teaching of a foreign language, the multiple line of approach is of unique importance. It should be followed as it helps the learners and the teacher in many ways. Suppose some class of students is taught the essay on The Postman. The students are given oral practice and writing practice in the topic. Spelling practice is also given by taking up words from the same topic. By correlating the different aspects of the language, the teacher can make his teaching of the language easy, interesting and useful for the learners.

·       Balanced Approach.

While teaching the language, the teacher should see that the different aspects of it are fully taken care of. Listening, speaking, reading and writing should be equally emphasized. Each aspect has its own importance. It is not proper if a teacher teaches grammar and ignores other things.

ORAL APPROACH

Many people can use a language for oral communication only. They cannot real or write in their own native language. They are illiterate, but they can listen and understand their language and also respond suitably and intelligibly when a situation arises. In order to teach a second language, say English, teachers should speak English and help their students speak it properly. It must be understood that after acquiring the speaking skills, the students can be helped to acquire the more difficult skills of reading and writing.

The teacher will do well to use oral skills of the students and also of his own

·       To introduce language items- structural and vocabulary items

·       To discuss the reading passages and poems

·       To prepare the students orally for doing the written exercises

·        To test the students’ reading comprehension

·       To teach composition writing

·       To motivate the students to read the Supplementary Reader Lessons

·       To take up remedial teaching

Main Characteristics of Oral Approach were as follows.

1.               Language teaching begins with the spoken language. Material is taught orally before it is present in written form.

2.               The target language is the language of the classroom.

3.               New language points are introduced and practiced situationally.

4.               Vocabulary selection producers are following to ensure that an essential general service vocabulary is covered.

5.               Items of grammar are graded following the principle of Simple to Complex.

6.               Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.

The advantages of teaching English through speech are:

·       The first attempt to establish theoretical principles

• Developing a methodological framework for the first time
•  Saves time and effort
• Practical mastery of speech
• Easy for the teacher and taught
• Instant correction of mistakes

·       Listening and speaking are inseparable

·       Provides situations to produce spontaneous responses

·       Exploited for teaching reading and writing

·       Questions and Answer techniques

·       Helps slow learners possess self confidence

·       Correction as a whole class is possible

·       Chorus repetition helps  slow learners

·       Takes away fear and shyness

·       Develop aural-oral skills

·       Oral approach – three important steps

            Teaching

Evaluation

            Remedial work

·       It is a natural way of learning any language

·       It is a good introduction to the other more difficult skills, namely reading and writing

·       It is easy for the teacher to handle the students for practice

·       It is the only way by which economical use of class time may be ensured

Disadvantages

§  The teachers of English must be good and they should be able to speak fluently. They should control their language in such a way that no sentence falls flat before the students

§  They must be resourceful to make the oral work interesting and meaningful.

Main Features

1) Language teaching begins with the spoken language

2) The target language is the language of instruction.

3) New language is introduced and practiced in situations.

4) Speech habit is formed in the initial period of a language course.

5) Accuracy is maintained.

6) Common core words are covered.

7) Simple forms of grammar are taught before complex ones, and inductively.

8) Reading and writing are introduced learning later.

Characteristics of Oral Approach

     Mastery of basic constructions orally

     Internalization of grammar

     Practice with proper stress, rhythm and intonation

     St. fits together phrases to generate sentences

Characteristics of Good Questioning

Good questions should...

     be stated clearly

     be as short as possible

     have the interrogative pronoun located at the beginning

     require students to examine one idea or concept at a time

     be arranged in a logical order

     build from the simple to the complex

     develop and examine concepts

     require students to consider facts, concepts, values and opinions

     require students to examine a variety of perspectives

     incorporate and utilize a broad range of thinking skills

Techniques

1) New sentences patterns presented in situations

2) Drill-based practice

3) Guided repetition

4) Substitution activities

5) Dictation

6) Controlled reading and writing tasks

Activities employed in oral approach

v Listening

v  Choral imitation

v Individual imitation

v  Isolation

v  Building up to a new model

v Linking drill

v Completion drill

v Conversation drill

v Elicitation

v Substitution drill

v Question – answer drills

TYPE OF QUESTIONS

Wh-Questions
As the name suggests, a wh- question is one that's formed with an interrogative word (what, who, whom, whose, which, when, where, why, or how) and that allows an open-ended answer--something other than "yes" or "no."

Yes-No-Questions
Another aptly named interrogative construction, the yes-no question invites the lisonly two possible answers.

Declarative-Questions
As Rick demonstrates, a declarative question is a yes-no question that has the form of a declarative sentence but is spoken with rising intonation at the end.

Tag-Questions
A tag question (like Rick's "wouldn't it?") is a question that's added to a declarative sentence, usually at the end, to engage the listener, verify that something has been understood, or confirm that an action has taken place.

Alternative-Questions
An alternative question (which typically ends with a falling intonation) offers the listener a closed choice between two answers.

Echo-Questions
An echo question (such as Ilsa's "Occupied France?") is a type of direct question that repeats part or all of something which someone else has just said.

Embedded-Questions
Typically introduced by a phrase such as "Could you tell me . . .," "Do you know . . .," or (as in this example) "I wonder . . .," an embedded question is a question that shows up inside a declarative statement or another question.

Hypophora
Here, both Rick and Laszlo employ the rhetorical strategy of hypophora, by which a speaker raises a question and then immediately answers it himself.

Rhetorical-Questions
A rhetorical question is one that's asked merely for effect with no answer expected. Presumably the answer is obvious.

Commoratio

commoratio: emphasizing an idea (in this case, a whimperative) by repeating it several times in different ways.

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

Introduction

          The Communicative Approach is a recent development in the teaching of English. This approach was propagated by socio-linguist, Dell Hymes. This approach has been evolved from the theory of communication which involves interaction. Thus, it is a two-way process and involves sharing of ideas, feelings and experience.

Basic Assumptions of Communicative Approach

—  Efficiency in aural oral aspect of the Language

—  Good in Mechanics of reading and writing

—  Correct language  habits

—  Command over active vocabulary

—  Good at Structures

Purpose of Communication

—  Personal function of revealing oneself

—  To control the listener

—  To establish relationships

—  To convey information to the listener

—  Creatively use the language

Communicative functions of a Language

—  To suit the occasion

—  To interpret the message

—  For interpersonal communication

—  To express in speech and writing

—  To aim for Communicative Competence

Principles of Communicative Approach

—  Communication is meaning based, conventional, appropriate, interactional and structural

—  It move towards the “process”, “task” and “discovery” orientations of materials

—  Appropriateness of use

—  Emphasizes on fluency than accuracy

—  Lang is conventional

—  Style should vary with respect to situation, task and participants

—  A form of social encounter

Characteristics of Communicative Approach

—  It involves task structure and process structure

—  Prime focus on the learner

—  Relies on authentic materials

—  Tasks set are purposeful and meaningful

—  Emphasizes on the functions of language than rules

—  Fluency based than accuracy based

—  It is interactive in nature

Procedure

—  Dialogue by tr. –

—  Oral practice of dialogue in chorus

—  Sets question and elicits answers

—  Using pictures, real objects or dramatization

—  Learner to discover rules underlying the functional expression

—  Activities to recognize and interpret functions

—  Oral Production Activities proceeding form guided to free communication

—  Learner copy the dialogues

—  Sample of written  Homework

—  Functions learnt orally are evaluated

Activities or Techniques used in Communicative Approach

—  Play way method

—  Lang games

-        Word hunt, word building, word puzzles, tongue twisters etc

—  Mind energizing tasks (problem solving activities)

—  Role- Play

—  Retrieving text order

—  Group work / Pair work

—  Story telling

—  Question and Answer session

—  Interview

—  Debate

—  Group Discussion

—  Expressing opinions

—   narrating events

—  Gist of content

—  Letter writing

—  Writing of dialogues,  reports, Notices, Minutes, agenda

—  Description

—  Jigsaw

Advantages of Communicative Approach

—  Pupil feel confident

—  Learning becomes self-generating exercise

—  More of Lang practice

—  Acquire fluency, accuracy and appropriateness

—  Cooperation in Lang learning

—  Motivating factor

—  Get rid of shyness

—  It is situational, meaningful and self-rewarding

Disadvantages of Communicative Approach

—  Overcrowded Classroom

—  Gap between what is taught and what is learned

—  Time consuming

—  Less attention to grammatical rules

—  Dearth for proficient Teachers

Competencies of a good English Language Teacher

A good English Language Teacher should possess all the qualities mentioned below

·       Mastery over the Language

·       Pronunciation of the Teacher

·       The Handwriting of the language teacher

·       Ready to improve his language

(Self-analysis and Self correction)

·       Dictionary – main source of information

·       Up to the mark in every respect. Interested in the new words and recently introduced language.

·       Staunch believer of modern English and grammar.

·       Expert in English literature.

·       Objectives in mind

·       Creative

·       Working knowledge of different methods of teaching

·       Adopts learner-centered approach

·       Equipped with the knowledge of handling hard wares and soft wares

·       Thorough in educational psychology

·       Good personality, values, affectionate class control ability

·       The language proficiency factor

·       The role of content

·       Teaching skills

·       Contextual knowledge

·       The language teachers identity

·       Learner-focused teaching

·       Pedagogical reasoning skills

·       Theorizing from practice

·       Practice

·       Professionalism

·       Good rapport with the students